People Whose Native Language Is Not English

People whose native language is not English, but who wish to learn English as a second language, must learn English as a new language, as a skill, as an additional means of communication. They have to learn how to pronounce strange words, and which syllables to emphasise, and what rhythms and tonal pitches should be used. But people whose mother tongue is English do not have to go to school to learn these things, they learn it automatically, from their parents, their relatives, their friends and from everyday life.For example, they do not have to ‘learn' the grammar structure, or the various forms for past, present and future tenses; they just acquire that ability subconsciously and instinctively, from sheer exposure to the language; they do not consciously ‘know' the rules of grammar, and they probably could not even explain them. By the age of three, or maybe even earlier, they just automatically know what words to use in many situation and what form those words should take.However, later, as part of their formal educational training, they will have ‘English' lessons at school, along with other subjects such as Geography and History and Mathematics etc. They may be given writing practice, and the opportunities to read literature that will expand their communication and learning skills. They will be encouraged to read and write stories and poetry, and will be given opportunities to become more and more familiar with their native tongue and how it is used in different ways to communicate information and ideas. They do not need to learn to ‘understand' the English language.They can already do that, but by doing ‘English' as a school subject, they will expand their vocabulary; discover alternative, and maybe better, ways to express themselves. In doing so, any little ‘mistakes' in their English will be corrected along the way. ) SUMMARY †¢Those who are learning English as a ‘second language' are learning it as an ent irely new language. It is not easy to do this, but well worth the effort. †¢Native-English speakers do not have to learn ‘English', they already ‘know' English! But, by learning English as a school subject, their natural ‘English' is enhanced and developed.

Organizational Behavior Issues in Aussieco Essay

Aussieco, an Australian company established as a small manufacturing and service operation company in 1962 is now a fully expanded company with 600 employees. The company built its reputation on a single product holding 90 per cent of the Australian market in the 1980. Over the years the market holding has gone down by 30 percent in spite of the product being unique and company facing little competition in the market (Jones,Gal, n. d) The downturn in Aussieco’s performance is mainly due to issues with the company’s management and organizational behavior. Organizational Behavior refers to ‘the understanding, prediction and management of human behavior in organizations’ (Luthans,2010). It is the study of individuals and their behavior in a work place. A company’s performance and outcome largely depends on its organizational behavior as it is an interdisciplinary field that includes sociology, psychology, communication and management. Aussieco’s organizational behavior issues can be explained through Henri Fayol’s 14 management principles. Henri Fayol’s theory of administration and organizational behavior focuses on the personal duties of management and managerial effectiveness which aussieco lacked. (Fayol,1971). The company has inexperienced staff and no specialization as major high authority staff is friends and family without skilled knowledge. The executive managing director is the owner’s nephew with no practical or industrial experience. The production supervisor is the production manager’s best friend who has little knowledge of the daily production tasks as he is a carpet fitter by qualification. Employees at the operative level are migrant labor mostly lacking formal qualification. On diversification, management failed to understand the changing market needs. Aussieco follows the power culture where control is centralized. The major motivational or driving force is fear (Luthans,2011). Suggestions and personal preferences are not welcomed. The owner-chairman reacts in a strong negative way if any manager’s opinion differentiates from his. This lack of consultation leads to staff feeling de motivated and undervalued. Though there has been division of labor and departmentalization in the company but the managers lack authority and responsibility. On the instance of owner accepting order from a bad debt customer without consulting the general manager shows lack of authority for the manager. Owner’s dictatorial attitude and ignorance of modern trends hold back the dedicated managers to improve and bring changes in the company’s working, as they are either fired from the job or become his instant enemies. The company lacks discipline and employee commitment. Lack of loyalty, no willingness to put high levels of effort, no belief in the company’s goals and vales and lack of faith in the management all together leads to all the issues of Aussieco. During lunch hours the senior management and sales staff have access to unlimited alcohol in the workplace. Assembly line workers underperform and hold back production with vague excuses. Subordination of individual interest over the company’s interest and goal is one of the major problems of Aussieco Employees overtime to get paid extra and not for productive outcomes. Also the senior programmer in spite of completing his work order uses his work holiday for personal matters. There is lack of equity and justice among the employees. The rule being everyone must vacate office during lunch break but exceptions for the senior management and sales staff that eat in the work place, operatives and other staff are allowed no food or drinks in the workplace. The migrant staff is treated well and better than its own internal staff. There are less internal promotions. High employee turnover, no stability of tenure of personnel is another major issue with Aussieco. To attain maximum productivity of personnel it is essential to have a stable workforce, which Aussieco lacks. There are frequent mass resignations in the company. No production manager lasts for more than 3 years in the company. The post of personnel manager is vacant since 2 months. Employees have no job security and thus are not fully committed to their work. This further increases the company’s costs of recruitment,selection and training. There is lack of motivation and initiative by the management for the welfare of the employees. There is lack of rewards, appraisal and bonus. The workshop roofs are without insulation and leak during heavy rain, no doors and filthy windows point toward bad and unhealthy working conditions. This even gave a loss of $AUS 500,000 when water leakage blew a computerized robot. No parking area provided for the employees, who reach frustrated to the office,which in turn shows in their slow performance. Lack of structured work, irregularity in work and no proper accounts and records maintained by the managers is another organizational issue for Aussieco. Though the record showed a stock of 4700 resistors but none could be located. A welder forgotten by the company after fitting of new automat is idle and has no contribution in the company. Reasons why these problems occur. One of the major reason for the organizational issues of aussieco is the employee attitude. Job satisfaction focuses on employee attitude and organizational commitment focuses on their attitude towards the organization. Job satisfaction is determined by how well the expectations of employees are met in return of their output (Luthans,2011). The aspects of job satisfication are not met by Aussieco. Employees of Aussieco are unsatisfied with the kind of work they get, the job provides less opportunities for learning and less responsibility. There is lack of remuneration and pay, less promotional opportunities, bad working conditions. This high level of job dissatisfaction of employees reflects in their low performance, company’s low profits, high employee turnover, high absenteeism and low level of commitment towards the company. The attitude of employees in an organization is largely influenced by the kind of environment the organization posses and further the attitude of employees affects their efficiency and performance at the organizational level. The environment of aussieco is not employee friendly thus employees have a negative attitude. Employee traits can be best explained by the Five factor model. Job performance is highly dependent on an individual’s conscientiousness (i. e dutifulness, persistence, industriousness) and emotional stability (i. anxiety, security, suspiciousness). In Aussieco employees had low conscientiousness and low emotional stability which affected their overall task performance and contextual performance. Organizational commitment is an important attitude toward the employers and the company. It is the extent to which we identify with them. Most of the employees, posses’ continuance organizational commitment, which is a calculative approach, where they chose to continue working in the company because they ‘have to’ rather than their want or obligation. This attitude is influenced by perceived costs of leaving the company, lack of opportunities, age, peer pressure, society expectations etc. Employees of Aussieco developed this attitude because of the mechanistic treatment they receive and lack of empathy from management. Autocracy is the concentration of power and authority in hands of one person. The management of Aussieco has an autocratic structure with the owner having unlimited power and absolute authority. There is a strict hierarchical structure; orders are sent from top level to bottom level. Ideas, personal opinions and suggestions are unwelcomed. In this management style managers believe workers must be controlled to ensure maximum productivity (Luthans,2011). Aussieco’s structure can be best explained by Douglas McGregor’s theory X. This theory represents an assumption of conflicting and negative working attitudes. The managers assume an average person dislikes work and will avoid it if possible, thus must be forced with threat of punishment to achieve organizational goals. An average person prefers to be directed and avoids responsibility. This approach encourages deadline and ultimatums, arrogant and demanding managers, mechanistic approach, no concern toward staff and one way communication (Jeremiah,2009). In Aussieco this approach resulted in a negative attitude by the employees, made them insecure and unhappy. Lack of Taylor’s scientific management. Frederik winslow taylor’s key idea was to improve industrial efficiency scientifically. He encouraged scientifically selecting and training workers and regularly monitoring their work to improve efficiency which also improves work man happiness and positivity (Lynch,1984). Aussieco lacked scientific selection, training and development of workmen and passively left them to train themselves. Managers did not supervise and provide instructions to the employees and there was no division of work between managers and workers. There was lack of specialization, standardized and systematic approach. The company continuously changed its suppliers for cheapest material available, a supplier providing 99. 5% quality level charging $20 per unit was replaced with a supplier charging $12per unit. The quality of the product suffered, increasing customer complaints and affecting the goodwill of the company negatively. There is lack of communication between departments, department managers and workers and senior management and managers. The senior management is unapproachable and not interested in the issues of the company and workers. Though Taylorism has faced criticism of exploitation, mechanistic approach etc but in relation to Aussieco, the company needs to adapt certain principles of Taylorism for a better organizational working. To conclude Ausseico’s major issue is organizational and management structure. The company should have a more humanistic and realistic approach with a right balance of authority and responsibility.

Thesis Example

enjoy!!! :]]] EFFECTS OF ILLEGAL ABORTION A Research Paper Presented to Ms. Rivera RAMON MAGSAYSAY (CUBAO) HIGH SCHOOL Ermin Garcia St. Cor. EDSA Cubao Quezon City In partial fulfillment of the requirement of English IV By: Rowena Louise V. Eustaquio IV-Scarlet ii APPROVAL SHEET This research entitled â€Å"Effects of Illegal Abortion† was prepared by Rowena Louise V. Eustaquio and hereby submitted for approval. ————————————————- Approved with a grade of ______ on _____________________. ————————————————- Accepted as partial fulfillment for English IV. iiiACKNOWLEDGEMENT I liked to thank God for finishing this Research paper because without the guidance of Him I can’t finish this. I thank my parents for supporting me for the time I used of our compute r to do some research about my topic. I thank my brothers and sisters for helping me when I need them to buy something for me. Especially I liked to thank to my Kuya Leeran because he gave me yellow pad papers for my draft. I liked to thank the librarian of RMCHS because of letting me to borrow the encyclopedias for I have to Xerox it, and also I liked to thank the RMCHS library for giving me some source for my research.I would like to thank Christine Pedrasita for her companion with me when I need to go to the library. I liked to thank Ms. Rivera for giving us this project. She gave us this project so that we are challenge to go to the library and how to use it and so that we can have time management because of hectic schedule. Thank you very much!!! –The Researcher— iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Title page †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚ ¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ ii Approval Sheet †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. iii Acknowledgement †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. iv Table of Contents †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. v CHAPTER 1 A.Introduction†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 6 B. History / Background†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 7 C. Limitation of Study †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 8 D. Purpose of the Study†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 9 E. Thesis Statement†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 10 F. Definition of Terms†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 11-12 CHAPTER 2 A. Review of Related Literature†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 13 Types†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 13-14 Methods†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â ‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 14-16 Abortion Law†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 16-17 Effects of Abortion†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 17-18 A List of Major Physical Sequelae Related to Abortion†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 8-20 Footnotes†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 20 CHAPTER 3 A. Summary†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 21 B. Conclusion†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â ‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 22 C. Recommendation†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 23 CHAPTER 4 A. Bibliography†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 24 B. Sample Survey†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 25 C. Permit†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 26 D. Curriculum Vitae†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 27 V CHAPTER 1 A. INTRODUCTION If you beco me pregnant at the age of 16, what would you do to your baby? Will you give birth or will kill your baby because you are too young to take care of a baby or to become a mother?Killing your baby is not an answer to this problem, even if it is just weeks old or a month young old, because it is not right to kill a human being it is in the Ten Commandments. I want to introduce to you my topic for this research paper. Abortion. I chose this topic because I want to give more information about abortion like the effects of it and why it was discovered. Enjoy learning! B. HISTORY/BACKGROUND Abortion was said that no one invented it, it was just discovered by physicians who were experimenting about the Hippocratic Oath in Ancient Greece, forbade doctors from helping to procure an abortion by pessary. 1) It began on 1800’s when laws forbid the act after 16 weeks of conception. In 1900’s many women was still using it even if it was at risk because of the different procedures that can affect to their health. It became legal in 1973 by the supreme court. (2) But still many countries are saying that abortion is illegal so other countries said to their law that abortion is illegal. There are many people knew about abortion but they have different ways and in different beliefs about it. And many women are still use and do it in different procedures. ________________________________ 1. http://en. ikipedia. org/wiki/Abortion#History 2. http://www. chritianet. com/abortionfacts/historybackgroundofabortion. htm C. LIMITATION OF THE STUDY This research paper only talks about the effect of illegal abortion only. This research is only for the people of the Philippines who wanted to know more or to learn more about abortion. This is to inform you want are the things you really want to learn about abortion. D. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY My purpose of choosing this topic for a research paper is because I really want to know more about abortion and I want to know why someone inve nted it or discovered it.Nevertheless, I want to inform all the people what are the good and especially the bad effects of it and why should we be informed about it. E. THESIS STATEMENT Many people, most of them were women teenagers, those were became pregnant early in a young age, use this kind of procedure so that they can not take the tasks as a young adult mother. They are thinking that this is just a easy thing and pregnancy is just a joke or a play but they are wrong. I want to prove from this research that abortion is not an answer to our problem of being pregnant so young because we are not ready for this situation.If you are pregnant you should be prepared and be proud because God gave you a child. F. DEFINITION OF TERMS ABORTION – any of various surgical methods for terminating a pregnancy, especially during the first 6 months. EUTHANASIA – also called mercy killing the act of putting to death painlessly or allowing to die. SACROSANCT – extremely sacre d or inviolable CONTRACEPTION – the deliberate prevention of conception or impregnation by any of various drugs EPIDEMIOLOGIC – of or relating to epidemiologySONOGRAPHY – a diagnostic imaging technique utilizing reflected high-free body sound waves to delineate, measures or examine internal body structures or organs AMNIOCENTESIS – a surgical procedure for obtaining a sample of amniotic sac in the uterus of a pregnant woman by inserting a hallow needle through the abdominal wall, used in diagnosing certain genetic defects or possible obstetric complications PREMATURE BIRTH – the birth of an infant after the period of viability but before full term ABORTIFACIENT – a drug or device used to cause abortionTANSY – any of several composite plants of the genus tanacetum, especially a strong-scented, weedy, old world herb CONTRACEPTIVE – tending or serving to prevent conception or impregnation PESSARY – a device worn in the  v agina to support a displaced uterus. GYNAECOLOGY – the branch of medicine concerned with diseases in women, esp those of the genitourinary tract PERFORATION – a hole, or one of a series of holes, bored or punched through something, as those between individual postage stamps of a sheet to facilitate separation.PENNYROYAL – an aromatic Old world  plant, Mentha pulegium,   of the  mint family, having clusters of small purple flowers  and yielding a pungent essential oil used medicinally and as an insect repellent. MENSTRUAL – of or pertaining to menstruation or to the  menses PHYSICIAN – a person who  is legally qualified to practice medicine; doctor of medicine. EMBRYO – the young of a viviparous animal, especially of a mammal, in the  early stages of development within the womb, in humans up to the end of the second month. Compare fetus.MENSTRUATION – the periodic discharge of blood and mucosal tissue from the  uterus, occurring approximately monthly from puberty  to menopause  in nonpregnant women  and females of other primate species. FETUS – the  young of an animal in the womb or egg, especially in the later stages of development when the body structures are in the recognizable form of its kind, in humans after the end of the second month of gestation INVOKED – to call for with earnest desire; make supplication or pray for UNSCRUPULOUS – not scrupulous; unrestrained by scruples; conscienceless; unprincipled.MORBIDITY – the proportion of sickness or of a specific disease in a geographical locality. CHAPTER 2 A. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Abortion is the expulsion of a fetus from the uterus before it has reached the stage of viability (in human beings, usually about the 20th week of gestation). An abortion may occur spontaneously, in which case it is also called a miscarriage, or it may be brought on purposefully, in which case it is often called an induced a bortion. Spontaneous abortions or miscarriage, may be caused by a number of factors, including disease, trauma, or genetic biochemical incompatibility of mother on fetus.Occasionally a fetus dies in the uterus but fails to be expelled; this condition is termed a missed abortion. Induced abortions may be performed for reasons that fall into four general categories to preserve the life or physical or mental well-being of the mother; to prevent the completion of a pregnancy that has resulted from rape or incest; to prevent the birth of a child with a serious deformity, mental deficiency, or genetic abnormality; or to exercise birth control, that is to keep from having a child for social or economic reasons.Abortions performed for any of the reasons in the first two categories are often termed therapeutic or justifiable abortions. Numerous medical techniques exist for performing abortions. During the first trimester (up to about 12 weeks after conception) eurettage or suction may be use d to contents of the uterus. From 12 to 19 weeks the injection of saline solution may be used to trigger uterine contractions; alternatively, the administration of prostaglandins by injection, suppository, or other method may be used to induce contractions, but these substances may cause severe side effects.Hysterotomy, the surgical removal of the uterine contents, may be used during the second trimester or later. In general, the more advanced the pregnancy the greater the risk of mortality or serious complications following an abortion. (1) TYPES Induced A 10-week-old fetus removed via a therapeutic abortion from a 44-year-old woman diagnosed with early-stage uterine cancer. The uterus (womb), included the fetus. A pregnancy can be intentionally aborted in many ways. The manner selected depends chiefly upon the gestational age of the embryo or fetus, which increases in size as the pregnancy progresses.Specific procedures may also be selected due to legality, regional availability, and doctor-patient preference. Reasons for procuring induced abortions are typically characterized as either therapeutic or elective. An abortion is medically referred to as a therapeutic abortion when it is performed to: * save the life of the pregnant woman; * preserve the woman's physical or mental health; * terminate pregnancy that would result in a child born with a congenital disorder that would be fatal or associated with significant morbidity; or * selectively reduce the number of fetuses to lessen health risks associated with multiple pregnancy.An abortion is referred to as elective when it is performed at the request of the woman â€Å"for reasons other than maternal health or fetal disease. † (2) Spontaneous Spontaneous abortion (also known as miscarriage) is the expulsion of an embryo or fetus due to accidental trauma or natural causes before approximately the 22nd week of gestation; the definition by gestational age varies by country. Most miscarriages are due to incorrect replication of chromosomes; they can also be caused by environmental factors. A pregnancy that ends before 37 weeks of gestation resulting in a live-born infant is known as a â€Å"premature birth†.When a fetus dies in utero after about 22 weeks, or during delivery, it is usually termed â€Å"stillborn†. Premature births and stillbirths are generally not considered to be miscarriages although usage of these terms can sometimes overlap. Between 10% and 50% of pregnancies end in clinically apparent miscarriage, depending upon the age and health of the pregnant woman. Most miscarriages occur very early in pregnancy, in most cases, they occur so early in the pregnancy that the woman is not even aware that she was pregnant. One study testing hormones for ovulation and pregnancy found that 61. % of conceptuses were lost prior to 12 weeks, and 91. 7% of these losses occurred subclinically, without the knowledge of the once pregnant woman. The risk of spontaneous ab ortion decreases sharply after the 10th week from the last menstrual period (LMP). One study of 232 pregnant women showed â€Å"virtually complete [pregnancy loss] by the end of the embryonic period† (10 weeks LMP) with a pregnancy loss rate of only 2 percent after 8. 5 weeks LMP. The most common cause of spontaneous abortion during the first trimester is chromosomal abnormalities of the embryo/fetus, accounting for at least 50% of sampled early pregnancy losses.Other causes include vascular disease (such as lupus), diabetes, other hormonal problems, infection, and abnormalities of the uterus. Advancing maternal age and a patient history of previous spontaneous abortions are the two leading factors associated with a greater risk of spontaneous abortion. [14] A spontaneous abortion can also be caused by accidental trauma; intentional trauma or stress to cause miscarriage is considered induced abortion or feticide. (2) METHODS Medical â€Å"Medical abortions† are non-sur gical abortions that use pharmaceutical drugs. As of 2005, medical abortions constitute 13% of all abortions in the United States.Combined regimens include methotrexate or mifepristone, followed by a prostaglandin (either misoprostol or gemeprost: misoprostol is used in the U. S. ; gemeprost is used in the UK and Sweden. ) When used within 49 days gestation, approximately 92% of women undergoing medical abortion with a combined regimen completed it without surgical intervention. [17] Misoprostol can be used alone, but has a lower efficacy rate than combined regimens. In cases of failure of medical abortion, vacuum or manual aspiration is used to complete the abortion surgically. (3) SurgicalIn the first 12 weeks, suction-aspiration or vacuum abortion is the most common method. [18] Manual vacuum aspiration (MVA) abortion consists of removing the fetus or embryo, placenta and membranes by suction using a manual syringe, while electric vacuum aspiration (EVA) abortion uses an electric pump. These techniques are comparable, and differ in the mechanism used to apply suction, how early in pregnancy they can be used, and whether cervical dilation is necessary. MVA, also known as â€Å"mini-suction† and â€Å"menstrual extraction†, can be used in very early pregnancy, and does not require cervical dilation.Surgical techniques are sometimes referred to as ‘Suction (or surgical) Termination Of Pregnancy' (STOP). From the 15th week until approximately the 26th, dilation and evacuation (D;E) is used. D;E consists of opening the cervix of the uterus and emptying it using surgical instruments and suction. Dilation and curettage (D;C), the second most common method of surgical abortion, is a standard gynecological procedure performed for a variety of reasons, including examination of the uterine lining for possible malignancy, investigation of abnormal bleeding, and abortion.Curettage refers to cleaning the walls of the uterus with a curette. The World H ealth Organization recommends this procedure, also called sharp curettage, only when MVA is unavailable. Other techniques must be used to induce abortion in the second trimester. Premature delivery can be induced with prostaglandin; this can be coupled with injecting the amniotic fluid with hypertonic solutions containing saline or urea. After the 16th week of gestation, abortions can be induced by intact dilation and extraction (IDX) (also called intrauterine cranial decompression), which requires surgical decompression of the fetus's head before evacuation.IDX is sometimes called â€Å"partial-birth abortion,† which has been federally banned in the United States. A hysterotomy abortion is a procedure similar to a caesarean section and is performed under general anesthesia. It requires a smaller incision than a caesarean section and is used during later stages of pregnancy. The Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists has recommended that an injection be used to sto p the fetal heart during the first phase of the surgical abortion procedure to ensure that the fetus is not born alive. (3) Other methods Bas-relief at Angkor Wat, Cambodia, c. 150, depicting a demon inducing an abortion by pounding the abdomen of a pregnant woman with a pestle. Historically, a number of herbs reputed to possess abortifacient properties have been used in folk medicine: tansy, pennyroyal, black cohosh, and the now-extinct silphium (see history of abortion). The use of herbs in such a manner can cause serious—even lethal—side effects, such as multiple organ failure, and is not recommended by physicians. Abortion is sometimes attempted by causing trauma to the abdomen. The degree of force, if severe, can cause serious internal injuries without necessarily succeeding in inducing miscarriage.Both accidental and deliberate abortions of this kind can be subject to criminal liability in many countries. In Southeast Asia, there is an ancient tradition of attemp ting abortion through forceful abdominal massage. One of the bas reliefs decorating the temple of Angkor Wat in Cambodia depicts a demon performing such an abortion upon a woman who has been sent to the underworld. Reported methods of unsafe, self-induced abortion include misuse of misoprostol, and insertion of non-surgical implements such as knitting needles and clothes hangers into the uterus.These methods are rarely seen in developed countries where surgical abortion is legal and available. (3) ABORTION LAW East Country| To protect woman's life| Physical health| Mental health| Rape| Fetal defects| Socio-economic factors| On request|   Brunei| Yes| No| No| No| No| No| No| Cambodia| Yes| Yes| Yes| Yes| Yes| Yes| Yes| China| Yes| Yes| Yes| Yes| Yes| Yes| Yes| Hong Kong [9][10]| Yes| 2nd (up to 24 weeks)| 2nd (up to 24 weeks)| 2nd (up to 24 weeks)| 2nd (up to 24 weeks)| No| No|   Indonesia| Yes| No| No| No| No| No| No| Japan (details)| Yes| Yes| Yes| Yes| Yes| Yes| Yes (de facto under socio-economic factors)|   People's Dem.Rep. of (North) Korea| Yes| Yes| Yes| Yes| Yes| Yes| Yes|   Republic of (South) Korea [11]| Yes| Yes| Yes| Yes| No| No| No (but illegal abortions, in this regard, are not punished)|   Laos| No| No| No| No| No| No| No| Malaysia| 1st| 1st| 1st| No| No| No| No| Mongolia| Restricted| Restricted| 1st| 1st| 1st| 1st| 1st|   Myanmar| Yes| No| No| No| No| No| No| Philippines (details)| Yes| No| No| No| No| No| No|   Singapore| Yes| Yes| Yes| Yes| 2nd| Yes| Yes| Thailand| Yes| Yes| Yes| Yes| No| No| No| Taiwan| Yes| Yes| Yes| Yes| Yes| Yes| Law is unclear| Yes| Yes| Yes| Yes| Yes| Yes| Yes| | | | | | | EFFECTS OF ABORTION (ILLEGAL AND LEGAL) The effects of abortion could be either physical or emotional and they will range with each woman who experienced this procedure. It may be difficult to tell beforehand who is at greater or lesser risk for such effects, and the fact that abortion is legal in most places certainly reduces risk of phy sical complication. That being said, there can be complications to this procedure of a physical and emotional nature, and it is wise to understand any possible risk factors. Right after an abortion, women may feel some soreness and cramping.This, and possibly bleeding from the procedure, which is generally no heavier than menstrual bleeding, may last for several weeks. Some women also experience stomach upset that can take the form of vomiting or simply nausea. These tend to be normal after effects of abortion, but if women feel concerned they should contact their doctor or the clinic where the procedure was performed. Sometimes complications do arise after an abortion, though risk of this is low. Women should watch in the first few weeks for signs or very heavy bleeding, fever, severe pain in the pelvis or severe stomach pain.These signs might suggest dangerous infection or hemorrhage and need immediate medical care. In extremely rare instances, death does occur during or after an abortion, but risk of this is about on par with risk of death during childbirth. There are also emotional effects of abortion, which do exist and need to be noted and looked for. Of these, the most significant is the development of postpartum depression. Postpartum depression is a risk any time a pregnancy ends, at any stage and no matter how. The body can respond by becoming deeply depressed as pregnancy hormones rapidly fall.What this would suggest for most women seeking an abortion is that they have a strong support system; this could be the help of friends, group support, work with a counselor, or a supportive family. Isolation after an abortion tends to increase risk for serious depression, and the circumstances under which a woman gets an abortion may also make depression more or less likely. Those who feel conflicted about the decision or must keep it secretive may suffer more. (5) Other emotional effects of abortion exist. Some people feel guilt, while others feel relief.Wit hout full-blown post-partum depression, some women may still feel tearful, moody, or simply endure a difficult emotional ride during the first few weeks to several months after abortion. Again, not all women have this experience, but some do. Understanding the effects of abortion allows women to make informed choices. There are strong arguments for and against this procedure, and people on both sides of this issue may frequently hold up one or two of the effects as a reason for or against having an abortion.What is most important is that effects be neither aggrandized nor minimized. It is important for anyone who faces this decision to understand effects clear of taint of a political position. (5) A LIST OF MAJOR PHYSICAL SEQUELAE RELATED TO ABORTION DEATH: The leading causes of abortion related deaths are hemorrhage, infection, embolism, anesthesia, and undiagnosed ectopic pregnancies. Legal abortion is reported as the fifth leading cause of maternal death in the United States, tho ugh in fact it is recognized that most abortion related deaths are not officially reported as such. 6) BREAST CANCER: The risk of breast cancer almost doubles after one abortion, and rises even further with two or more abortions. (6) CERVICAL, OVARIAN, AND LIVER CANCER: Women with one abortion face a 2. 3 relative risk of cervical cancer, compared to non-aborted women, and women with two or more abortions face a 4. 92 relative risk. Similar elevated risks of ovarian and liver cancer have also been linked to single and multiple abortions. These increased cancer rates for post-aborted women are apparently linked to the unnatural disruption of the hormonal changes which accompany pregnancy and untreated cervical damage. 6) UTERINE PERFORATION: Between 2 and 3% of all abortion patients may suffer perforation of their uterus, yet most of these injuries will remain undiagnosed and untreated unless laparoscopic visualization is performed. Such an examination may be useful when beginning an abortion malpractice suit. The risk of uterine perforation is increased for women who have previously given birth and for those who receive general anesthesia at the time of the abortion. (6) Uterine damage may result in complications in later pregnancies and may eventually evolve into problems which require a ysterectomy, which itself may result in a number of additional complications and injuries including osteoporosis. (6) CERVICAL LACERATIONS: Significant cervical lacerations requiring sutures occur in at least one percent of first trimester abortions. Lesser lacerations, or micro fractures, which would normally not be treated may also result in long term reproductive damage. Latent post-abortion cervical damage may result in subsequent cervical incompetence, premature delivery, and complications of labor.The risk of cervical damage is greater for teenagers, for second trimester abortions, and when practitioners fail to use laminaria for dilation of the cervix. (6) PLACENTA PRE VIA: Abortion increases the risk of placenta previa in later pregnancies (a life threatening condition for both the mother and her wanted pregnancy) by seven to fifteen fold. Abnormal development of the placenta due to uterine damage increases the risk of fetal malformation, perinatal death, and excessive bleeding during labor. (6)HANDICAPPED NEWBORNS IN LATER PREGNANCIES: Abortion is associated with cervical and uterine damage which may increase the risk of premature delivery, complications of labor and abnormal development of the placenta in later pregnancies. These reproductive complications are the leading causes of handicaps among newborns. (6) ECTOPIC PREGNANCY: Abortion is significantly related to an increased risk of subsequent ectopic pregnancies. Ectopic pregnancies, in turn, are life threatening and may result in reduced fertility. 6) PELVIC INFLAMMATORY DISEASE (PID): PID is a potentially life threatening disease which can lead to an increased risk of ectopic pregnancy a nd reduced fertility. Of patients who have a chlamydia infection at the time of the abortion, 23% will develop PID within 4 weeks. Studies have found that 20 to 27% of patients seeking abortion have a chlamydia infection. Approximately 5% of patients who are not infected by chlamydia develop PID within 4 weeks after a first trimester abortion. It is therefore reasonable to expect that abortion providers should screen for and treat such infections prior to an abortion. 6) ENDOMETRITIS: Endometritis is a post-abortion risk for all women, but especially for teenagers, who are 2. 5 times more likely than women 20-29 to acquire endometritis following abortion. (6) IMMEDIATE COMPLICATIONS: Approximately 10% of women undergoing elective abortion will suffer immediate complications, of which approximately one-fifth (2%) are considered life threatening. The nine most common major complications which can occur at the time of an abortion are: infection, excessive bleeding, embolism, ripping or perforation of the uterus, anesthesia complications, convulsions, hemorrhage, cervical injury, and endotoxic shock.The most common â€Å"minor† complications include: infection, bleeding, fever, second degree burns, chronic abdominal pain, vomiting, gastro-intestinal disturbances, and Rh sensitization. (6) INCREASED RISKS FOR WOMEN SEEKING MULTIPLE ABORTIONS: In general, most of the studies cited above reflect risk factors for women who undergo a single abortion. These same studies show that women who have multiple abortions face a much greater risk of experiencing these complications. This point is especially noteworthy since approximately 45% of all abortions are for repeat aborters. 6) INCREASED RISKS FOR TEENAGERS: Teenagers, who account for about 30 percent of all abortions, are also at much high risk of suffering many abortion related complications. This is true of both immediate complications, and of long-term reproductive damage. (6) LOWER GENERAL HEALTH: In a survey of 1428 women researchers found that pregnancy loss, and particularly losses due to induced abortion, was significantly associated with an overall lower health. Multiple abortions correlated to an even lower evaluation of â€Å"present health. While miscarriage was detrimental to health, abortion was found to have a greater correlation to poor health. These findings support previous research which reported that during the year following an abortion women visited their family doctors 80% more for all reasons and 180% more for psychosocial reasons. The authors also found that â€Å"if a partner is present and not supportive, the miscarriage rate is more than double and the abortion rate is four times greater than if he is present and supportive. If the partner is absent the abortion rate is six times greater. (6) INCREASED RISK FOR CONTRIBUTING HEALTH RISK FACTORS: Abortion is significantly linked to behavioral changes such as promiscuity, smoking, drug abuse, and eating disorders which all contribute to increased risks of health problems. For example, promiscuity and abortion are each linked to increased rates of PID and ectopic pregnancies. Which contributes most is unclear, but apportionment may be irrelevant if the promiscuity is itself a reaction to post- abortion trauma or loss of self esteem. (6) ————————————————- 1. AbortionBritannica Encyclopedia Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc. , 1974-1990 Vol. 1 page 37 1a 2. http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Abortion#Types 3. http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Abortion#Methods 4. http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Abortion_law#East 5. http://www. wisegeek. com/? what-are-the-effects-abortion. html 6. http://www. abortionfacts. com/reardon/effect_of_abortion. asp CHAPTER 3 A. SUMMARY Abortion is a surgical method for terminating a pregnancy, especially during the first 6 months. It has many reasons like because of earl y pregnancy, pregnancy and rape or incest by accident.Women are very careless today because they knew that they can handle it, but they’re wrong. There are two types of abortion, one is spontaneous but also known as miscarriage, it is the expulsion of an embryo or fetus due to accidental trauma or natural causes before approximately the 22nd week of gestation. The other one is induced abortion, is a therapeutic abortion, it is performed when the mother was raped and to preserve the life of physical or mental well-being of the mother. There are two methods of abortion.One is the medical method, they use pharmaceutical drugs so that the womb will be aborted. The other one is the surgical procedure, they use the suction aspiration or they will suck the blood or the embryo so that the fetus is smashed and can not live anymore. In the Philippines, many use medical but sometimes they do not use it because you will go to the hospital and then you will buy expensive drugs. Sometimes Filipinas who abort their child uses the procedure of sucking them but not doing it in the right place, right time and right medical instruments.The procedure they used is very illegal here in the Philippines and especially very dangerous especially to the woman who is carrying the child, it is prohibited against the law in our country. Sometimes woman who aborted their child when it was just a fetus, they just leave it in the trash bags and throw it away in the river and creeks. Here are some effects of illegal abortion: DEATH- many women die because of hemorrhage, infection, embolish, anesthesia and undiagnosed ectopic pregnancies. BREAST CANCER- the risk of breast cancer almost double after one abortion and rises even further with two or more abortions.UTERINE PERFORATION- all abortion patients may suffer perforation or their uterus, yet most of these injuries will remain undiagnosed and untreated unless laparoscopic visualization is performed. CERVICAL LACERATIONS- significant l acerations requiring structures occur on at least one percent of 1st trimester abortions. PLACENTA PREVIA- Abortion increases the risk of placenta previa in later pregnancies (a life threatening condition for both the mother and her wanted pregnancy) by seven to fifteen fold.Abnormal development of the placenta due to uterine damage increases the risk of fetal malformation, perinatal death, and excessive bleeding during labor. ECTOPIC PREGNANCY- are life threatening and may result in reduced fertility. ENDOMETRITIS- is a post-abortion risk for all women, but especially for teenagers. B. CONCLUSION Many women die everyday because of illegal abortion. Many babies too die because of abortion. I therefore conclude that any types and even the methods of abortion is illegal and bad because you are killing many human lives even if it is not yet living but still it is not right.Many effects of abortion may lead to infections or even death. In the Philippines many cases were listed about abo rtion that were illegal and many of them were not yet observe and the other cases were disapproved and been canceled. Women who had just done abortion just put their fetuses in the trash and just throw them away and never think about the life of the beings. C. RECOMMENDATION I recommend to the readers of this research paper is never use abortion because it is illegal and can lead many women to death.Killing a human being is never the answer to the problem of rape or early pregnancy because that is a gift from God and we should treasure it. If you don’t want to become pregnant you should take care of yourself. CHAPTER 4 A. BIBLIOGRAPHY http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Abortion#History Abortion Britannica Encyclopedia Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc. , 1974-1990 Vol. 1 page 37 1a http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Abortion#Types http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Abortion#Methods http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Abortion_law#East http://www. wisegeek. com/? what-are-the-effects-abortion. html http://www. bortionfacts. com/reardon/effect_of_abortion. asp http://www. chritianet. com/abortionfacts/historybackgroundofabortion. htm B. SAMPLE SURVEY NAME:__________________________ DATE:____________________ AGE:________ GENDER:_________________ DIRECTIONS: Check the box if your answer to the following questions is YES or NO. QUESTIONS| YES| NO| 1. Do you have knowledge about abortion? | | | 2. Are you aware of the abortion law? | | | 3. Do you agree about abortion? | | | 4.Do you agree that abortion should be illegal? | | | 5. Do you agree that abortion should be legal? | | | 6. Do you know someone that used abortion? | | | C. PERMIT Ramon Magsaysay (Cubao) High School Ermin Garcia St. Cor. EDSA Cubao, Quezon City Dr. Josefina T. Perlado Principal Ramon Magsaysay (Cubao) High School Ermin Garcia St. Cor. EDSA Cubao, Q. C Dear Madam, I would like to request from your good office to allow me to conduct a survey for the purpose of my research entitled â€Å"Effects of Illegal Ab ortion† of school year 2010-2011. This is in compliance with the requirements in English IV.Rest assured that the data would be treated with confidentially. Thank you very much! Respectfully Yours, __________________________ Rowena Louise V. Eustaquio Researcher Noted by: __________________ Ms. Rivera D. CURRICULUM VITAE NAME: Rowena Louise V. Eustaquio ADDRESS: 184 Ermin Garcia St. Cubao Quezon City BIRTH DATE: May 3, 1995 BIRTH PLACE: Marikina City CONTACT #: 09359623977 GENDER: Female CIVIL STATUS: Single CITIZENSHIP: Filipino RELIGION: Roman Cathoic MOTHER’S NAME: Lynn Anne V. Eustaquio OCCUPATION: Call Center ManagerFATHER’S NAME: Raul M. Eustaquio OCCUPATION: n/a SIBLINGS: 1. Lee Randolph V. Eustaquio 2. Liam Romeo v. Eustaquio 3. Regina Lorraine V. Eustaquio EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND: ELEMENTARY ADDRESS SCHOOL YEAR Eulogio Rodriguez Sr. Elementary School Ermin Garcia St. 2001-2007 Cubao Q. C HIGH SCHOOL ADDRESS SCHOOL YEAR Ramon Magsaysay (Cubao) HS Ermin Ga rcia St. Cor 2007-2011 EDSA Cubao Q. C

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The current State of Security in Smartphone - Term Paper Example Mobile technology is the latest domain that has been exploited by malicious intent users, like hackers, intruders etc, to achieve personal gains from jeopardizing the security of the legitimate users. This paper shall address the prevailing security threats that are witnessed in Smartphone technology alongside the technologies that are used to protect the devices from such threats. 2. Security in Smartphone The security threats that revolved around computers have migrated into the Smartphone domain and causing heavy losses to the users. To highlight the relevance of security measures on smartphones, Cheng (2011) provided results from a survey that was conducted by McAfee in the current year. The survey revealed that malware instances for Android (one of the most common smartphones in the current times) have increased by a significant figure of 76% in the last four months. Malware is defined as any program or application that is developed for the purpose of performing illicit activiti es, such as Trojans, viruses and worms. Some of the examples of security threats in smartphones are given below: 2.1 Smishing Phishing attacks had been known to cause harm to personal computers but a similar security threat is prevailing in the current times that is directed to harm smartphone- smishing and vishing. Ruggiero and Foote (2011) stated that hackers use the conventional approach of sending fake messages or voicemails to the recipients and urge them to call a financial institution with the aim to update their security settings etc. Voicemail systems are activated on the respective fake hosts that record sensitive information of the recipient. 2.2 Baseband Hacking Hackers have invented ways to intercept cellular phone calls by making the chips and firmware compromised in the Smartphone. Cheng (2011) stated that the baseband processor of the phone is turned into a listening device and enables the hackers to record conversation taking place between the participants. This can serve to record sensitive information and thus be used for malicious intent. 2.3 Infected Applications Applications are the most attractive feature of smartphones since they allow an individual to perform a diverse range of operations, for example play games, browse the web etc. Applications have also become one of the most common modes of infecting smartphones with compromised programs, such as Trojans. Apple and Blackberry follow a procedure of screening the applications (that might be contributed by developers) before publishing them on their App stores; this approach makes them avoid many Trojan attacks that might be hidden in the programs. Android follows a different approach and does not perform any screening process on the applications. Chang (2011) stated that an Android application with the name of â€Å"Steamy Window† has the power to convert a Smartphone into a botnet zombie. Upon successful acquisition of control over the phone, the hacker can perform any desired operation, such as: Send messages to any contact Make the browser point to compromised sites that may facilitate the transmission of sensitive information. Block the receiving of messages. 2.4 Jailbreaking and Rooting Apple IPhone School (2010) explains jail breaking as the hacking activity of the iPhone, iPad and iPod that allows the individual to have access to the Unix file system. Jailbreaking an iPhone is analogous to rooting an Android phone. Ngo (2009) stated that

Research Paper for chosen topic Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

For chosen topic - Research Paper Example In the higher levels of an org chart, the stakeholders usually benefit from the phased approach since it has been quicker to implement and has been able to increase the efficiencies and enabled the organization in managing the risks that are associated with the customer relationship management implementation. For instance, considering the experience in a large financial firm of services that needed a replacement of the outdated Customer Relationship Management system. Over several years the system had not yet been widely adopted by the employees in the firm which had offices in the U.S and U.K. the reasons behind this were quite typical that the mentioned that the CRM solution was not in a position to produce up to the moment data and that as well, the perception within the functional limitation tied to the user interface challenges resulted in frequent entry of similar information (Buttle 78). The firm was quite aware that it needed up to date technology that would be in a position to offer a foundation for growth as the firm expanded and the needs evolved accordingly. Successful building of user adoption has always been a significant challenge with Customer Relationship Management for which the users need much training on tracking more granular of data. The tangled web designed for the data integration further complicated the matter. Therefore, the solution to it would seemingly need to communicate with the internal databases, corporate directory and the external systems. The risk could easily result in a sort of implementation that probably spends the entire organization for consecutive years. However, the firm responded by successfully lessening the effect in managing the scope of the project and in confidence leading the organization into change (Baran 56). This happened in adopting the phased approach to the implementation of the CRM solution. The first step of the implementation was a

Magnetic Resonance Instrumentation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Magnetic Resonance Instrumentation - Essay Example This is achieved by increasing using multiple turns of the coil to increase its sensitivity, to allow high duty of pulsing. At the same time, the design will consider the inductance of the coil gradient, which will have to be minimized. The components of the MR system that are important in this regard include the gradient amplifier, voltage across the inductive, and the resistance across the gradient coil. Q3. The effects of gradient G(r) on Larmor processional frequency at a position r is to change the processional frequency at this position r. Q4. The optimal separation of two current carrying loops to produce as linear a magnetic field gradient as is possible at the centre of the two loops is when 2Z1 =, where a refers to the coil radius. The reason as to why this separation is different from the necessary one to produce a homogenous field is because separating the field in that manner help in generating relatively pure fields. Q5. Slew rate refers to the maximum gradient strength as a factor of the rise time (Vmax/L). The slew rate needs to be as large as possible because it helps in stimulating the peripheral nerves of the human body, thereby creating a â€Å"crawling† type sensation on the skin. Q6. Reason why it is necessary to shield gradient coils: This is done mainly to reduce the net inductance of the system Q7. Type of effect caused by gradient coil shielding to reduce combat the effects of eddy-current induced magnetic fields. Q8. The causes of undesirable sounds produced by magnetic resonance imaging at runtime are due to gradient coil experiencing magnetic forces and torques when being pulsed. The reason is that as the coils get physically restrained, the energy associated with the magnetic forces is released acoustically as loused sound. The undesirable sound can be reduced by: Designing a gradient coil that are torque and force balanced; Shaping the gradient pulses to reduce sound produced; Using acoustically absorbent formers for the co ils; Encasing the gradient coils in an evacuated chamber so that waves of the sound are not compatible. Q9. The main cause of nerve stimulation due to magnetic resonance imaging is the slew rate push and the maximum gradient strengths that induce field in the patient, thereby stimulating the nerves. This is mainly observed by experiencing a â€Å"crawling† type sensation on the skin. It can also be observed through twitching of muscles as the nerves get stimulated. Q10. The causes of impurities in the static magnetic field (BO) include: The patient and radiofrequency coils in the DSV, which may alter the magnetic field due to their magnetic properties; Imperfection in the magnetic manufacturing process; Installation site where ferrous installations done near the magnet may end up altering the homogeneity of the magnetic field over the DSV. Q11. The two types of image quality reduction caused by zonal impurities in the static magnetic field are: Artifacts; Homogeneity. Part B The three topics in my order of preference are: 1) Interventional MR system; 2) MR gradient coils: action and performance; 3) RF resonators for MR applications. The main reason as to why I have chosen the three topics is due to my desire to learn more about them so that I can acquire more knowledge

To the board of the Renaissance University Essay Example for Free

To the board of the Renaissance University Essay I am writing this recommendation letter on behalf of Adam Levine. Adam’s life revolves around his band and music. The experience and passion Adam holds are powerful qualities in his favor. He is a zealous music coach and musician. He helps his students and team on The Voice by inspiring them and pushing them to sing outside of their comfort zone and to explore different genres. He challenges young musicians and singers to grow as artists and helps them explore who they are as performers. Adam is young and talented himself, and because of that he communicates well with younger students. Adam Levine is a well-rounded, independent person. Not only is Adam famous for his musical talents he has branched out into television, starting from a comedic role on Saturday Night Live to his fulltime role as a judge on the reality show The Voice. Adam has struggled his whole life with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). He started a world-wide project known as â€Å"The Own It Project†, which is his way of encouraging young adults and adults to tell their story about how they deal with ADHD. Adam also is a big supporter of lesbian and gay rights (LGBT) and strongly believes it is something you are born with. His brother, Michael, is openly gay which the family has known about since Michael was two years old. Adam Levine has worked hard to gain confidence and overcome an in-born shyness he had since he was a little boy. His love of music, family, and friends has shaped him to be the man he is today. Adam now exhibits a personality so lively and outgoing that people are enamored by his entertaining qualities. In my eyes Adam has a very gentle personality. People are drawn to him, because he radiates warmth and a caring nature. Adam is the peacemaker on The Voice, always making an effort to find the good in the contestant’s performances, rather than being too critical of their mistakes. People sense Adams desire for a loving and spiritual environment. Adam may not have had strength when he was younger for the music business, but he has proved himself to be able to do anything he sets his mind to. Yours truly, ______________

Theory of Parabolas Essay Example for Free

Theory of Parabolas Essay A parabola is designed on a basic formula, Y=ax^2+bx+c, which allows it to achieve a curve not seen in a normal line graphed using a Y=mx+b format. To the left is a graph who’s formula is y=x^2, where a=1, b=0, and c=0. I have isolated the (a) factor to see its effects on the parabola. Below is a graph where I have changed the (a) multiple times. The result is that as the (a) decreases, the mouth of the parabola widens due to the fact that (a) is essentially the slope of the parabola. Now, watch what happens when the (a) becomes negative. Now the mouth of the parabola is opening down and as we increase (a), the parabola widens. When (a)1, the parabola closes up horizontally. So from this, we can infer that if (a) is 0, then the result will be a straight line going along the X axis which is no longer a parabola. Now we will look at how the (b) factor changes the parabola, below is the origional graph from the top of the paper except the red line represents the same parabola with a (b) added onto it. The original equation was Y=x^2(blue line) and the new equation is Y=x^2+x(red line). The change is moving the vertex of the parabola left ? and down ? but the shape of the parabola it’s self is unchanged. Here are some other examples of changing (b) in a parabola with a steady (a) As seen in the graph, (b) only moves the parabola to the sides and down (as the numbers increase, the vertex moves left and down and decreasing is vice versa), but somehow fails to move the parabola up past the point X=0 on its own (making the (a) negative will flip the parabola). So now we have a slope (a) and a vertex (b), but we still need our Y-intercept which will be our (c) As shown from the graph, our parabolas Y-intercepts match up with our (c) factor, completing the equation -Fun fact, the word parabola came from the Greek words para, meaning beside, and bole, meaning to throw

Risk management is of vital importance in islam and takaful

Risk management is of vital importance in islam and takaful ABSTRACT Risk management is of vital importance in Islam and Takaful provides a way to manage risks in business according to SharÄ «ah principles. This research paper attempts to identify various types of risks involved in Takaful business that affect operational and investment functions of Takaful operators across the globe and finds the ways to manage those risks effectively. However, takaful operators often face difficulty in managing market and credit risks as SharÄ «ah compliant nature of Takaful contract does not allow Takaful companies to deal with interest rate and financial derivatives that have been unanimously considered repugnant to SharÄ «ah by Islamic jurists. This research identifies Islamic financial instruments like cooperative hedging and bi-lateral mutual adjustment that aim at providing mutual gains to both parties by the way of risk sharing and can be used as an alternative to conventional derivatives. The research paper attempts to provide a framework to enhance risk management culture among Takaful operators. It also discusses the challenges that need to be encountered to enhance risk management practices among Takaful operators. INTRODUCTION â€Å"Many Muslims misunderstand the concept of fate. For some Muslims believe that the future is in the hand of Allah, where they are facing with fatalistic mentality by putting themselves in the doctrine, whether one is rich or poor, happy or sad, it is fated by Allah. It is a good dealing with luck. In fact, efforts and prayers should precede this kind of belief† (Iqtisad Al-islamy, 2003). For a long time, same misconceptions have been associated with insurance. Muslim scholars and Islamic jurists have treated insurance illegal, haram and repugnant to SharÄ «ahwithout providing an alternative solution to Muslim Ummah. As a result of these prevalent misconceptions, any effort or risk management strategy to insure the assets or life has been considered against the fate and will of Allah. In Islamic financial planning, Takaful is a way to reduce the financial risk of loss due to accident and misfortunes (Iqtisad Al-islamy, 2003). As a matter of fact, Takaful plan is an alternative to the insurance in the conventional financial planning. In Takaful plan, the participant would pay particular amount of money as contribution (known as the premium) partly to risk fund (the participants special account) using the concept of tabbaru (donation) and partly to another party (known as Takaful company) with a mutual agreement that, the kafiil (Takaful company) is under a legal responsibility to provide for the participant a financial protection against unexpected loss, should it happen within the agreed period. The focus of this research paper is to identify various types of risks associated with Takaful business and devise criteria for managing risks and enhancing risk management culture among Takaful companies. It also discusses challenges to risk management in Takaful. RISK MANAGEMENT â€Å"Risk is the chance of happening of something that will have an impact upon our objectives. It is measured in terms of likelihood and consequences† (GOWA, 2002). Traditionally, concept of risk has been associated with uncertainty of events in future. Higher the uncertainty of events, higher is the risk. In insurance, risk is the amount of loss associated with property or life. Risk to property can be a loss or damage to car, building, house, etc. Risk to life can be described as poor health, premature death, bodily injuries as a result of accident etc. (Rejda, 2006; p.23). Risk management is a process that identifies loss exposures faced by an organization and selects the most appropriate techniques for treating such exposures(Rejda, 2006; p. 63). According to New Zealand standard of Risk Management, â€Å"It is the culture, processes and structures that are directed towards the effective management of potential opportunities and adverse effects†. In fact, risk management is an ongoing process that encompasses all aspects of our life. RISK MANAGEMENT UNDER SHARIAH Risk traditionally means possibility of meeting danger or suffering, harm or loss (Iqtisad Al-islamy, 2003). Risk is an element of life in this world for being ignorant of the future. It is also factor of investing that one should take time to understand prior to selecting any specific investment instruments or any new adventures. Muslims are asked to work hard in order to be able to change their conditions as obvious in the verse of Holy Quran, †¦ Verily never will Allah change the condition of a people until they change it themselves (with their own souls)†¦ (Quran 3:11). However, it is true that only Allah knows ones future and fate, Muslims should strive to achieve the goodness in this world and the hereafter. Submission to Allah, of course, has a positive effect on human behavior. For it will lead to peace and contentment. Undoubtedly, one has to submit every single thing to Allah, but it supposes to be after his hands stretch out to do the best effort as he can, to ch ange himself, so that he would be able to manage and to cope with unforeseen calamities or misfortune. Prophet Muhammad peace be upon him once asked a Bedouin who had left his camel untied, Why do not tie your camel? the Bedouin answered, I put my trust in Allah the prophet then said, tie up your camel first then put your trust in Allah( Sunan al -Tirmizi, vol.4, No. 2517, p. 668). This conversation depicts not only how should Muslims accept their fate but it also indicates how do Muslims reduce the risk of loss and calamities. Quran has presented stories of the previous prophets so that Muslims can take the lessons from their experiences. The story of the prophet Joseph, for instance, tells us about financial planning. The story of Prophet Yaqub, Josephs father, tells us about the management of risks as Yaqub commanded his sons to enter Egypt from different gates. Quran states, Further he said: O my sons! Enter not all by one gate: enter ye by different gates. Not that I can profit you aught against Allah (with my advice): None can command except Allah: On Him do I put my trust: and let all that trust put their trust on Him (Quran 12:67). The history of the prophets migration to Madinah gives us other lessons on how the Prophet (SAW) managed the risk. The Prophet reduced the risk of getting killed by asking Hazrat Ali (R.A.) to sleep in his bed during the night of emigration. It was reported that as night advanced, the Quraish posted assassins around the Prophets house. Thus they kept vigil all night long, waiting to kill him the moment he left his house early in the morning, peeping now and then through a hole in the door to make sure that he was still lying in his bed. All these above examples depict that risk management is in the roots of Islam. We, as a Muslims, should put our trust onto Allah only after meticulous planning and best utilization of all the available resources. NORMS OF ETHICS Obaidullah (2002, pp.2-4) has identified norms of efficiency and ethics for SharÄ «ahbased risk management in a business contract. These norms are also applicable to Takaful contract and are briefly described as follow: Each party in Takaful contract should be free to accept the terms and conditions of the contract and no coercion is imposed on any party. Takaful contract should be free from element of ‘riba (interest) that is prohibited by Shariah. One of the major objections on the contract of conventional insurance by SharÄ «ahscholars is element of ‘riba in its investments for which it is considered illegal and unIslamic. There should be no uncertainty or ambiguity about the nature of contract. Excessive uncertainty is not permissible in Shariah. For example, SharÄ «ahscholars disallow conventional insurance contract where no party clearly knows how and from where the insured amount is to going to be paid in case a loss or catastrophe occurs to the insured. There should not be any element of gambling in Takaful contract. It means that Takaful contract should not be aimed at getting a huge advantage at the cost of others. Rather, participants should have sincere intention of helping each other in case of loss or catastrophe from a joint fund. Contribution amount for participants should be adequate and fair and should be determined by actuaries and approved by SharÄ «ahscholars. Takaful customers (participants) should have equal access to adequate, accurate and timely market information related to Takaful products and companys performance where they want to contribute their money. Rights of any third party should not be adversely affected by Takaful contract between two parties. It means Takafulcontract should not be detrimental to any third party. There should be unrestricted public interest in Takaful products and its business contract which should work for the benefit of people at large. TYPES OF RISKS IN TAKÄ€FUL BUSINESS Business industry is prone to a number of risks. Five types of risks in business (Basel, 2006; IAIS, 2004) have been identified that are relevant to Takaful business. First two types of risks (underwriting and operational risks) are directly related to operations of Takaful company while remaining three (credit, liquidity and market risks) are associated with the investment activities of the company. i. Underwriting Risk: Underwriting risk is pertinent to insurance and Takaful. It occurs due to adverse selection of applicants or due to re-Takaful risk as a result of inability of re-Takaful operator to meet the obligation towards ceded company under re-Takaful agreement (IAIS, 2003; pp.32-33). Adverse selection refers to the tendency of selecting applicants that result in higher than average chance of loss (Rejda, 2006; p. 45). The risk of adverse selection arises when applicants with higher than average chance of loss succeed in obtaining Takaful coverage at standard rates e.g. high risk drivers or persons with serious health problems. It results in higher claim ratio and put the firm on high liquidity constraints. Re-Takaful risk occurs as the ceded company remains liable for a portion of outstanding claim to the extent re-Takaful operator fails to provide financial protection to Takaful operator in accordance with agreed terms. Both adverse selection and re-Takaful risk hamper the firms underwriting capacity; disturb the cash flow pattern and hence affect the stability of the profits of the company. ii. Operational Risk: Operational risk is not a well defined concept , yet Basel Report (2006, p.144) defines it as a loss that occurs as a result of inadequate or failed internal processes, people, technology or from external events. Internal processes failure occurs (Ahmed Khan, 2001; pp.29-30) as a result of inaccurate processing of transactions, inefficient record keeping, violating operational control limits, non-compliance of regulations etc. people risk may occur due to incompetence of employees, fraud and failure to perform the duties. Technology risk may arise as a result of telecommunication system or computer network breakdown. Risks from external events include unenforceability of regulatory policies, legislation and regulations that affect the fulfillment of contracts and transactions in the organizations. These risks are also called legal risks and are considered a part of operational risks. iii. Credit Risk: Credit risk occurs a result of default of counterparty when it fails to meet its obligations in time and in accordance with agreed terms (IAIS, 2004; p.14). In case of insurance, credit risk may be treated as default risk, migration risk, spread risk or concentration risk. Default risk occurs when Takaful operator does not receive or partially receive cash flows or assets to which it is entitled because the other party fails to meet the obligations of the contract. Migration risk occurs when probability of a future default of an obligator adversely affect the contract today. Spread risk occurs due to market perception of increased risk on either macro or micro basis. Concentration risk is the result of increased exposure to losses due to concentration of investments in a particular geographical area or economic or industrial sector. Takaful industry is also exposed to these risks. iv. Liquidity Risk: Liquidity risk is the risk resulting from Takaful companys inability to meet its obligations (i.e. claims payments and maturity price of policy) when they fall due. This risk occurs because the company has insufficient liquid assets or high level of liabilities (IAIS, 2004; p.18). Liquidity risk includes liquidation risk, affiliation investment risk and capital funding risk. Liquidation value risk is the risk under circumstance when assets are liquidated below their real (market) value. Affiliated investment risk is the risk that investment in an affiliated or member company might result in drain of financial or operating resources. Capital fund risk is the risk that insurance company will not be able to outsource funds in case of large claims. Takaful industry, just like conventional insurance company, faces similar types of liquidity risks. v. Market Risk: Market risk is the volatility of prices in instruments and assets of Takaful company in the market. It can be classified as equity price risk, interest rate risk, currency risk and commodity price risk (IAIS, 2004, p.12). Equity price risk is the risk of loss resulting from changes in market price of equities or other assets. Interest rate risk is the risk of loss resulting from changes in interest rates that adversely affect the cash flows of the insurance company. Currency risk is the risk of loss resulting from volatility of exchange rates that adversely affect the operations of insurance company. For a Takaful company, it does not include interest rate risk, however Takaful operators are exposed to mark up price risk as avoidance of interest based transactions is distinctive feature of SharÄ «ahcompliance. MANAGING RISKS All types of risks in Takaful require specific risk management strategy and need to be managed on individual basis. i. Underwriting Risk Management: Underwriting risk can be managed by establishing standard selection procedure consistent with the companys objectives. Most of the Takaful operators require physical inspection or medical reports of the applicants that have serious health problems or prone to higher than average risk. Some have introduced computerized underwriting system to standardized underwriting procedure and minimizing the chance of adverse selection. For example, Takaful Ikhlas Sdn. Bhd. of Malaysia uses computerized underwriting procedure for motor Takaful where applicants who meet standard requirements are automatically selected for Takaful. Others are rejected or alternatively are offered higher contribution rates for the extra risk. To minimize re-Takaful risk, Takaful operator can evaluate the financial strength of re-Takaful operators in the region and diversify the risk geographically by making arrangements with more than one re-Takaful operator. ii. Operational Risk Management: Management of this risk is more complex as it arises from failure of internal processes, people, information system breakdown and non-compliance with regulatory standards (Ahmed Khan, 2001; pp. 38-39). Senior management and board of directors of Takaful company should devise policies and develop strategies to manage and reduce operational risks. Sources of operational risk (i.e. people, processes and technology) should be handled carefully. This raises the importance of corporate governance culture in the organization. Given the newness of Takaful industry, computer software available for conventional insurance might not be appropriate for Takaful industry. This calls for recruiting talented professionals in the field of informational technology so that they could develop software to meet peculiar needs of Takaful industry. Independent external auditors can also play an important role in mitigating operational risk as they point out flaws in internal processes of the organization. T his calls for proper disclosure of activities and independent and secure reporting system. iii. Credit Risk Management: Under conventional insurance system, credit exposure limits are established within companys investment policies to mitigate and manage default risk, migration risk, spread risk and concentration risk as discussed under credit risk. Usually, following credit exposure limits can be established for insurance company investment and credit activities (IAIS, 2004; pp.16-18). Internal and external rating of counterparties Limit on maturity of credit facility (prefer short term credit over long term credit) Limit on maximum investment amount or a certain percentage of investment exposure to a single issuer, industry, geographical region or some other risk classification. Prohibition of interest does not allow Takaful companies to investment in interest-based instruments (Chapra and Khan, 2000). Moreover, Takaful companies do not have access to credit derivatives that are considered effective instruments for credit risk mitigation. Yet Al-Suwailem (2006; pp.67-68) argues that futures and Option contracts result in losses for more than 70% of the time and hence such instruments are considered as factors of loss, not of gain. The non-availability of Islamic derivatives raises the importance of internal control mechanism for Takaful operators which ensures that credit risk exposures are maintained within limits of prudential standards defined by internal controls. iv. Liquidity Risk Management: IAIS Report (2004, p.20) identifies two approaches in order to hedge liquidity risk that are also applicable to Takaful industry. These are: Cash flow modeling Liquidity ratios Cash flow modeling is done in order to assess the amount of deficit, surpluses or liquidation value risk in order to meet the needs of Takaful industry. Takaful operator should make sure that it has sufficient liquid assets in order to meet liquidity risk and unexpected liquidity requirements. Use of liquidity ratios will help Takaful operator to set the amount of liquid assets required to meet demands of liability portfolio, desired level of liquidity ratio will also help in determining Takaful operators investment policies. Capital funding risk could be mitigated by setting contingency plans and drawing cash from re-Takaful policies. This form of liquidity hedging could be recognized by knowing current level of liquid assets in hand to meet Takaful operators investment policies. In order to identify and evaluate liquidity risks, Ahmed and Khan (2001, p.38) emphasize the need of adequate internal control and proper disclosure of information in the organization. Towards this end, it is essential to have regular independent reports and internal audit function should periodically review the liquidity risk management process. v. Market Risk Management: In conventional insurance, management of market risk includes devising strategies to manage interest rate risk, exchange rate, and commodity price risk as well as equity price fluctuations. Takaful operators are not involved in interest based transactions so they do not face this risk. However, KIBOR (Karachi Inter Bank Offered Rate) can be used as bench mark for markup in Islamic financial institutions in their financing activities. Conventional institutions manage the market risk using financial derivatives such as futures, forward, option or swap contracts (Chapra Khan, 2000; p.55). Takaful operators face difficulty in managing market risk as these financial derivatives are not compatible with SharÄ «ahin the eyes of Islamic scholars. However, according to Al-Suwailem (2006; pp.118-126), cooperative hedging and bi-lateral mutual adjustment are acceptable instruments under SharÄ «ahto mitigate currency risk and interest rate risk respectively. Additionally, Takaful operators could apply stress tests and Value at Risk (VaR) techniques to mitigate commodity price risk and equity risk. Stress testing is one of the risk management tools that can be employed to assess the vulnerability of portfolios to abnormal shocks and market conditions. Value at Risk is the probability of portfolio losses exceeding some specified proportion. ENHANCING RISK MANAGEMENT CULTURE Cultivation of risk management culture is extremely important to form a robust and resilient Takaful industry in Pakistan. This objective, however, could not be achieved without active participation and collaboration of regulatory authorities, senior management of Takaful companies and members of SharÄ «ahSupervisory Board (SSB). Towards this end, regularities authorities should make sure that stress testing and Value at Risk (VaR) reports as identified above are regularly produced and obtained from senior management of Takaful operators in addition to reports of Takaful risks. Regular review of these reports will greatly facilitate the regulatory authorities as well as Takaful operators to enhance risk management practices in Takaful industry. Moreover, effective implementation of internal control and corporate governance system could prove to be of vital importance to Takaful operator as well as to concerned regulatory authority. It will help the authorities in effective monitoring of Takaful activities and managing different types of risks hence enhancing the functioning of Takaful operators in the industry. Figure 1 shows the steps for effectively manage the risks in Takaful business. In the first step, possible risks in the way of Takaful business are identified. In the second step, strategies are developed to cope with and manage the risks effectively. In the third step, process of identification and strategy formulation and implementation related to each type of risk is examined through review reports and effective measures are taken to counter any flaw or discrepancy in the previous process. CHALLENGES TO RISK MANAGEMENT In spite of effective risk management techniques discussed above, there are certain challenges in the way of risk management for Takaful. i. Internal Controls: Internal controls are indispensable for recognizing and assessing risks faced by financial institutions including Takaful companies. Basel Committee (2005) and IAIS (2006a) reports have focused on the importance of internal controls for banking institutions as well as for conventional insurance companies respectively. Chapra and Ahmad (2002) found that existence of effective internal control have prevented the financial institutions from systemic crisis and enabled them to have early detection of problems and associated risks they might face in future. These experiences highlight the importance and need of internal controls for Takaful companies. Unique nature of these companies from conventional insurance demands the fulfillment of SharÄ «ahaspects. IFSB and IAIS joint working group (2006) maintains that to have effective internal control mechanism, Takaful companies must ensure SharÄ «ahcontrols in addition to all statutory regulations. It urges the need of a regularSharÄ «ahaud it as a part of an on-going internal control system. ii. Corporate Governance: The corporate governance structure specifies the distribution of rights and responsibilities of the Board, manager, shareholders and other stakeholders (OECD Report, 1999) yet effective corporate governance ensures the independence of board of directors (BOD) who in turn devise polices and implement strategies for risk management and hold the management accountable to shareholders (Psaros and Seamer, 2002; p.7). Lack of an effective corporate governance framework hampers the independence of board of directors (BOD) and hence poses a challenge to risk management. It in turn increases the operational risk which might result in failure of operations due to inability of BOD to implement unbiased and independent decisions for the best interest of all stakeholders. Takaful companies are confronted with an additional challenge related to corporate governance of SharÄ «ahSupervisory Board (SSB). Grais and Pellegrini (2006b) identify corporate governance issues that affect their role and fun ctioning in the organizations. It calls for a greater need to incorporate corporate governance culture to overcome related issues of Takaful industry. iii. SharÄ «ahBased Challenges: According to Ahmed Khan (2001), most of the risk management techniques are not applicable to Islamic financial institutions due to the requirements of SharÄ «ahcompliance. It creates SharÄ «ahbased challenges to risk management for Takafulcompanies as well. These challenges arise as SharÄ «ahrestricts the use certain instruments that are considered useful in conventional risk management e.g. derivatives (futures, options, swaps etc.) and sale of debts. Al-Suwailem (2006, pp.89-90) argues that SharÄ «ahconstraints to human behavior do not hinder creativity, rather these constraints are the major driving force behind the creation of innovative financial instruments. He suggests several Islamic financial instruments for risk management and concludes that SharÄ «ahis abundant with real solutions to the present problems of gambling and speculation. It provides directions to SharÄ «ahscholars and experts of Islamic finance to explore the dimensions of SharÄ «ahin order to integrate risk management practices with value creation. iv. Financial Engineering: Financial engineering aims at designing new and innovative SharÄ «ahcompliant Islamic financial instruments for IFIs including Takaful companies. Chapra and Ahmad (2002) maintain that financial engineering has emerged as the greatest challenge faced by SharÄ «ahscholars of present time as it poses major threat to IFIs to become competitive in the contemporary business environment. Process of giving fatwas by SharÄ «ahscholars regarding the permissibility of a financial instrument is quite slow and over-conservative (Iqbal et al, 1998; pp.47-48) as SharÄ «ahscholars and experts of modern finance have different academic backgrounds. They use technical terms related to their own field that are most of the time not easily understandable to other party. The need is to produce scholars with SharÄ «ahbackground that also have working knowledge of modern finance to meet the acute challenge of financial engineering. v. Islamic Financial Market: Islamic financial market provides a secondary market for trading of Islamic financial instruments. In the absence of this market, it will be extremely difficult for Takafulcompanies to maintain its liquidity position to make prompt claim payments when they become due. Retaining a large portion of Takaful fund to maintain high liquidity ratio will affect the efficiency of the firm and its competitiveness as compared to conventional insurance companies that have ready access to liquid bonds and t-bills. Islamic Financial Market will greatly facilitate the Takafulcompanies to invest large portion of their fund in Islamic financial instruments and increasing their efficiency and competitiveness while maintaining low liquidity ratio. It will also help Takaful companies in hedging market risk by providing alternative instruments to financial derivatives that are not acceptable under Shariah. vi. Need of Private Credit Rating Agencies: Although International Islamic Rating Agency (IIRA) has been set up in Bahrain to judge the SharÄ «ahcompliance and financial strength of Islamic financial institutions (IFIs) including Takaful companies, it is not be possible for IIRA to rate thousands of counterparties with whomTakaful companies deal. Consequently, it calls for the need of private credit rating agencies in each Muslim country that could provide information related to financial strengthen, fiduciary risk and credit worthiness of thousands of counterparties that privately issue financial instruments (Chapra Ahmed, 2002; pp.80-81). This information could provide great help to IIRA in rating these companies and make it readily available to Takaful companies and other interested parties. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS Risk management is of vital importance in Islam and Takaful provides a way to manage risks in business according to SharÄ «ahprinciples. Five types of risks have been identified in Takaful business that affect operational and investment functions of Takaful operator. Operational risk can be managed by enhancing corporate governance culture in the organizations. Cash flow modeling and use of liquidity ratios is quite helpful to identify liquidity constraints. Takaful operators might face difficulty in managing market and credit risks asSharÄ «ahcompliant nature of Takaful contract does not allow Takaful companies to deal with interest rate and financial derivatives due to their speculative nature by which they tend to benefit one party at the loss of other. On the other hand, Islamic financial instruments like cooperative hedging and bi-lateral mutual adjustment aim at providing mutual gains to both parties by the way of risk sharing. Risks associated to Takaful have raised several challenges that need to be encountered to enhance risk management practices. Regular SharÄ «ahaudit is found to be an integral part of effective internal controls that prevent the companies from systemic crisis. Corporate governance calls for independence of BOD to devise policies for effective risk management, make unbiased decisions and resolve issues related to functioning of SSB. SharÄ «ahbased challenges call for devising innovative Islamic financial instruments as SharÄ «ahis abundant with real solutions to present business dilemma and does not hinder creativity. Exploring those solutions will help to meet the challenge of financial engineering. Islamic financial market will greatly facilitate the task of Takaful companies to invest large portion of their fund in Islamic financial instruments and increase their efficiency and competitiveness. There is need to establish private credit rating agencies that could assist IIRA to ra te thousands of counterparties for the benefit of Takaful operators.